{"id":169,"date":"2025-11-19T18:01:11","date_gmt":"2025-11-19T18:01:11","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/www.critical-stages.org\/32\/?p=169"},"modified":"2026-05-20T19:24:18","modified_gmt":"2026-05-20T19:24:18","slug":"traditional-kabuki-from-business-practice-to-national-policy","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/www.critical-stages.org\/32\/traditional-kabuki-from-business-practice-to-national-policy\/","title":{"rendered":"\u2018Traditional\u2019 Kabuki \u2013 from Business Practice to National Policy"},"content":{"rendered":"\n

Tove Johanna Bjoerk<\/strong><\/strong>*<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Abstract<\/strong><\/h5>\n\n\n\n

This article analyzes how the world of Kabuki constructed its “tradition” through the publication of theatre chronicles and actors\u2019 genealogies from the mid-eighteenth to the late nineteenth century, as well as through a series of deliberate omissions in its historiography. Various publications from the eighteenth and nineteenth century (made by and for cultured fans) presenting the history of Kabuki aimed at describing the roots of the medium in the mythical age of the gods, or the \u201cexotic\u201d Chinese theatre, and at the same time they provided a chronologically structured narrative of the theatres and actors\u2019 lineages. While early modern publications often searched, sometimes with a tongue-in-cheek attitude, for the roots of the medium in the nobility of the gods or in Chinese parables, they nevertheless emphasized the legitimacy of these businesses, which were backed by government-issued licenses. Highlighting the continuity of actors\u2019 lineages to reinforce the respectability of Kabuki as a family enterprise was a common trope in these early modern publications. After the Meiji Restoration, however, the Kabuki world shifted its narrative toward \u201ca culture born from the people, which had been resisting feudal authority,\u201d framing it as a national form of performance rather than a collection of family-run enterprises. Therefore, tracing the legacies of \u201cinventing a tradition\u201d over centuries to fit the various political, social and economic circumstances, and by working through many primary sources, this article traces some of the dominant trends of the historiography of Kabuki; along with intervening in the multiple strategic omissions of the history of the medium such as the weak presence of the foremother of the form, Okuni, in early modern publications and her reappearance in the twentieth century.

Keywords: <\/strong>Kabuki, historiography, genealogy, tradition, legitimacy, family business, early modern publishing<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Background and Sources<\/strong><\/h5>\n\n\n\n

Invoking a long and illustrious past is a well-established means of legitimizing power, often by tracing its origins to divine ancestry. In Japan, the eight-century court chronology Kojiki<\/em> (\u53e4\u4e8b\u8a18, \u201cAncient Matter\u201d), features as its first chapter the legends of how the emperor is related to the gods. In this same chapter we find the tale of how goddess Ame-no-Uzume danced an erotic dance to provoke laughter and entice the sun goddess Amaterasu out of her cave, a myth commonly regarded as the origin of Japan\u2019s performing arts (Terauchi 11).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Zeami (\u4e16\u963f\u5f25, 1363-1443), one of the forefathers of Noh (sarugaku<\/em>), outlines the historical origins of Noh in his treaty Fushikaden<\/em> (\u98a8\u59ff\u82b1\u4f1d, \u201cTales of Shapes of the Wind and Flowers\u201d), as follows:<\/p>\n\n\n\n

If we try to establish the origins of the life-extending art of sarugaku<\/em>, we find that it has been transmitted either from the land of the Buddha (India) or from the Age of the Gods. Yet time has passed, and with the interposition of the ages it no longer lies within our abilities to learn how it first appeared. This art, which recently so many people take pleasure in, dates from the reign of Empress Suiko (592-628), when the regent Prince Shotoku Taishi ordered Hada no Kokatsu to create sixty-six pieces of entertainment \u2013 either to promote peace in the nations or for public enjoyment- that he called sarugaku<\/em>. Over the generations, writers have used the scenery of nature as a medium for this entertainment. Later, Kokatsu\u2019s descendants passed this art down the line of succession, as priests at either the Kasuga Shrine in Yamato or the Hie Shrine in Omi. Thus, the performance rites at both these shrines thrives to this day. (47)<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Zeami writes with the intent of justifying his art as being worthy of the support of the Ashikaga shogunate and the imperial court (Takemoto 383-410). But if we look at the structure of this historiography, we see that it contains the same elements that we will encounter in the early modern publications, namely, the divine roots, the connection to an elevated exotic other, here India, (though more commonly China); references to institutionalized practice; and claims of unbroken continuity. Zeami\u2019s treaties were published and were widely circulated in the mid-seventeenth century,[1]<\/sup><\/a> so there is no mystery in how the early modern writers got their hands on this model for constructing a historical narrative.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Although Zeami himself fell out of political favor with the shogunate and was exiled, his sarugaku <\/em>Noh did obtain the favors of the politically powerful in time, and when the Tokugawa government established itself in the early seventeenth century, Noh became the protected performance art of the warrior class (Kagaya and Miura 49-51). Here, other performers took over the role of popular entertainment, initially by travelling troupes performing on borrowed Noh stages. Once Tokugawa Ieyasu had consolidated power and implemented a stable civil administration, permanent theatre companies were established in urban centers.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

The origins of Kabuki as a performance art is attributed to a theatre troupe led by a woman named Okuni, often described as a shrine maiden from the Izumo shrine (dedicated to Amaterasu). In 1603, she gained fame in Kyoto by parodying the flamboyant fashion of the kabuki-mono<\/em> dandies and cross-dressing in performances that included flirtatious scenes with a courtesan (played by a male actor). She was consequently invited to the imperial palace and also travelled to Edo to participate in a performance festival to raise funds for the building of the Edo castle in 1612. These achievements are well documented in contemporary court and government records as well as picture scrolls and folding screens (Hattori 258-310).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Okumi\u2019s success was soon copied by prostitutes as a way of attracting patrons, however female performers were forbidden in 1629 due to endemic fighting among their fans. Subsequently, Kabuki performances were continued by young male wakashu<\/em> performers, who similarly used their stage appearances to scout for customers for their prostitution. Also here, the fighting among fans \u2013 predominantly of the warrior class \u2013 became problematic, and they too were forbidden in 1652. Thereafter, Kabuki became a grown-up male theatre form, which necessitated its transformation into a more sophisticated dramatic form (Takei).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Parallel to these developments, however, Kabuki theatres, with the Nakamura za theatre in Edo in the lead, managed to secure business permits sanctioned by the Tokugawa government itself. There permits were called yagura<\/em> (\u6ad3, \u201ctower\u201d), indicative of the drum tower marking the entrance of a theatre, and they became an intense source of prestige, especially for the theatres in Edo, where the licenses were hereditary. In the theatres in Kyoto and Osaka, the licenses could be bought and sold, but in Edo, it was necessary for the yagura <\/em>license to pass from father to son which created a rather rigid hereditary and hierarchical system for the management of the theatres and the many businesses of theatre quarters dependent on them creating an influx of consumers with loose purse strings (Bj\u00f6rk 2019, 161-72).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

The 1714 Ejima-Ikushima scandal<\/em>, in which court lady Ejima, serving the mother of the seventh shogun, was discovered to be having an affair with the prominent Kabuki actor Ikushima Shingor\u014d, led to the closure of the Yamamura-za theatre. In the aftermath, the Tokugawa government restricted Edo to just three officially sanctioned theatres: Nakamura-za, Ichimura-za, and Morita-za (Bj\u00f6rk 2019, 189-92).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

As long as these three theatres conducted their business well, the merchants of the Sakai ch\u014d, Fukiya ch\u014d and Kobiki ch\u014d theatre quarters were content. However, during the 1730s, incompetence of the leader of the Morita za theatre, in combination with the recession caused by an attempt to remedy the government\u2019s finances, called the Ky\u014dh\u014d Reforms, sparked a sense of crisis in the Kabuki industry. In 1735, a series of petitions to the magistrate resulted in the revival of old yagura<\/em> permits giving the three theatres of Edo \u201cback-up permits\u201d called hikae yagura<\/em> \u63a7\u3048\u6ad3, to secure the existence of a Kabuki theatre in each of the said quarter in the case of bad management of one theatre (Bj\u00f6rk 2019, 167-72). The magistrate reasoned that there were too many people economically dependent on the theatres to allow them to close. For the world of Kabuki as a whole, the decision meant business security which allowed them to evolve further from the latter half of the eighteenth century. From this time onwards, the world of Kabuki became closely intertwined with the publishing industry,[2]<\/sup><\/a> leading to the production of numerous books dedicated to the theatre. <\/strong>These publications will be the subject of analysis in the sections that follow, and all the books discussed have been retrieved and examined via the Union Catalogue Database of Japanese Texts of the National Institute of Japanese Literature.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

In the following sections, I will first examine references to a mythical past and allusions to Chinese theatre, I argue that, although such references could serve to elevate the status of Kabuki, they were more often employed playfully, through the mitate<\/em> technique of associative parody. Next, I will look at the records of the theatre licenses and linages of acting houses, here contending that there were serious attempts at enhancing the legacy the theatres obtained from their government approved business licenses. Finally, I will address certain omissions, and and explore how Kabuki historiography was rewritten in the twentieth century.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

The Age of the Gods and Chinese Theatre<\/strong><\/h5>\n\n\n\n

One early example of situating the genesis of Kabuki in the Age of the Gods can be found in the booklet Omoshiro ya shibai no hajimari <\/em>(\u904a\u697d\u622f\u5834\u306e\u6feb\u89f4, \u201cThe Funny Beginnings of Theatre\u201d). The author is unknown, but it was published in the 1780s by publisher Tsutaya J\u016bsabur\u014d (\u8526\u5c4b\u91cd\u4e09\u90ce, 1750-1797).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Tsutaya J\u016bsabur\u014d started his career in the Yoshiwara licensed quarters, printing guidebooks for the customers. In 1783, he obtained the necessary backing from the printer\u2019s guild to move to the Nihonbashi quarters where he became one of the most prolific publishers, associated with authors and artists such as Santo Ky\u014dden, Kyokutei Bakin, Shikitei Sanba and Utagawa Toyokuni. Omoshiro ya shibai no hajimari<\/em> is estimated to have been produced just before Tsutaya moved to the Nihonbashi quarters. The book follows the long and narrow format of the Hachimonjiya Actor\u2019s Reviews, though its tone is overtly parodic. The preamble traces the origin of Kabuki to ancient Kagura ritual, retelling the story of how the sun goddess Amaterasu hid herself in a cave with an illustration to depicting scene.<\/p>\n\n\n

\n
\"\"
The Dance in front of the Heavenly Cave, Omoshiro ya shibai no hajimari<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n\n\n

Part two of the text is constructed as the review of a fictional play in which Nagoya Sansa, one of the famous kabuki-mono<\/em> dandies of the early seventeenth century and alleged lover of Okuni, sees Indian Kabuki Dance (\u5929\u3062\u304f\u304b\u3076\u304d\u306e\u3075\u308a, Tenjiku kabuki no furi<\/em>) performed at the Palace of the Dragon King. This scene is likewise illustrated.<\/p>\n\n\n

\n
\"\"
Kabuki Dance at the Palace of the Dragon King, Omoshiro ya shibai no hajimari<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n\n\n

This latter part can be interpreted either as the introduction of an exotic foreign element into Kabuki\u2019s historiography, or as an allusion to another legend from the Kojiki<\/em>, namely the legend of the two brothers Yamasachi (\u5c71\u5e78, \u201cLuck of the Mountain\u201d) and Umisachi (\u6d77\u5e78, \u201cLuck of the Sea\u201d).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

In this myth, Yamasachi is forced to travel to the Palace of the Dragon King under the sea to retrieve his brother\u2019s fishing hook. Upon returning it, he curses Umisachi, who eventually submits and is tasked with entertaining Yamasachi by reenacting his own drowning. Later, this myth was adapted into the children\u2019s tale Urashima Tar\u014d<\/em> and is often regarded as a second mythical origin of Japan\u2019s performing arts.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

While the dances luring out Amaterasu from her cave are interpreted as a prayer for good harvests and blessings of nature etc., the Yamasachi and Umisachi legend stresses the political aspects of performance arts. The tone of our text, however, is humoristic, and what the traveler to the Palace of the Dragon King brings back is not a fishing hook and a curse, but exotic performance. A slightly different take on the punning on the Age of Gods and exotic elements can be found in the book Yakusha meisho zue <\/em>(\u622f\u5b50\u540d\u6240\u56f3\u4f1a, \u201cPicture Collection of Famous Places for Actors\u201d), written by Kyokutei Bakin (\u66f2\u4ead\u99ac\u7434, 1767-1848), published in the year 1800, with illustrations by Utagawa Toyokuni I (\u6b4c\u5ddd\u8c4a\u56fd, 1767-1825).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Kyokutei Bakin was born into a low-ranking warrior family but gave up the rank and became an Edo townsperson. He published over 200 works, the best known being the epic Nans\u014d satomi hakken den <\/em>(\u5357\u7dcf\u91cc\u898b\u516b\u72ac\u4f1d, \u201cThe Chronicles of the Eight Dog Heroes of the Satomi Clan of Nans\u014d,\u201d 1814-1842). The Yakusha meisho zue<\/em>, produced rather early in Bakin\u2019s career, is a Toyokuni lavishly illustrated volume, containing 24 chapters. It examines various architectural features such as the layout of seating, backstage arrangements, framing them metaphorically as \u201cfamous places.\u201d The explanatory notes give a full description of the mythical roots of Kabuki, including an elaborate explanation of the etymology of the wordshibai <\/em>(\u829d\u5c45) a general term for plays or theatre, but literally meaning \u201con the grass.\u201d<\/p>\n\n\n\n

According to Bakin, the first theatrical platform was the one on which the goddess Ame-no-Uzume danced and explains that there were once upon a time three sorts of grass growing in front of the Nanend\u014d hall at the Kofuku-ji temple in Nara. One was the seed of Kyogen, the other that of Sanbas\u014d dances and the last of kabuki-mono<\/em> Nagoya Sansa. They were each carefully planted in pots and brought to the Shij\u014d avenue in Kyoto, where generations of actors carefully watered them. A similar concern with the etymology of the word shibai<\/em> can be found in Gakuya zue shuui<\/em> (\u697d\u5c4b\u56f3\u4f1a\u62fe\u907a, \u201cSelected Illustrations from Backstage,\u201d by ukiyo-e artist Sh\u014dk\u014dsai Hanb\u0113 (\u677e\u597d\u9f4b\u534a\u5175\u885b) published in 1803. Here, the author takes a rather more materialistic view, claiming that in the second month of the third year of Daid\u014d (808), a great hole opened in the ground in the Sarusawa area of Nara. Poisonous gas oozed from this hole, and a diviner told the emperor that he should fill up the hole, plant grass on it and perform the Okina and Sanbas\u014d dances on top of it. The author claims that all the genres of performance arts stems from this event, hence the name shibai<\/em> = \u201con the grass\u201d for all theatre.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

The authors use the references to the age of the gods with humor, and their readers would hardly have taken these deliberations literally. However, we can find similar notes scattered about in the dictionaries and the works of fiction and poetry, so the notion that Kabuki theatre stemmed from the ancient ritual performance arts seems to have been commonplace. Equally widespread was the notion of an \u201cexotic foreign element\u201d being intertwined with divine origins. Once again, Bakin provides the most detailed treatment of this idea in Yakusha meisho zue<\/em>; bracketed explanations below are my own):<\/p>\n\n\n\n

The names of actors in our country can be found in the volume concerning the age of the gods, they are that ancient. However, some people say that the very early form of ancient acting is not connected to the current mundane theatres. Be that as it may, they must have received something from those ancient undercurrents. In the age of Bunji [1185-1190], there were many female performers known as shiraby\u014dshi<\/em> [\u767d\u62cd\u5b50] dancers. They were much like Kabuki actors today. The Kabuki theatres as we know them today founded by Nagoya Sansaemon [\u540d\u53e4\u5c4b\u5c71\u5de6\u885b\u9580] during the Eiroku era [1558-1570].

Moreover, the Music Bureau [yuefu<\/em>\u697d\u5e9c] of the Tang, Han, Wei and the Six Dynasties, all composed poems meant to be sung and danced to. This same style was adapted by theshirabyoshi <\/em>dancers. It is said that the first scripts, called yenben<\/em> [\u9662\u672c, jp, inbon<\/em>, read shibai<\/em> in this text] of fictions were during the reign of Emperor Xuanzong of Tang [\u5510\u7384\u5b97\u7687\u5e1d, 712-756].

These were the base for the wu hua cuan nong<\/em> [\u4e94\u82b1\u7228\u5f04, jp. goka sanron] dances of the Song dynasty. After that, in the Yuan and Ming dynasties, various role characters and acting techniques [\u52fe\u6b04\u622f\u5b50] developed.[\u2026.] These acting forms have not changed in our country. These acting forms have not changed in our country. The elegance of flowers and birds, the wind and the moon cannot be appreciated by uncultivated spectators. The knowledge of a thousand mountains and a hundred rivers is not easily enjoyed by women and children. Only at the theatre is there no difference between the elevated [\u96c5, ga<\/em>] and the vulgar [\u4fd7, zoku<\/em>], nor between the old and the young. Here, all may cast off their sorrows and experience the pleasures of theatre, the clearest mirror of humanity. Indeed, the theatre is the most refined and famous place of them all.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Bakin makes several errors in translations in the omitted part of the citation, but he clearly enjoys sprinkling his texts with Chinese theatrical terminology.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Another author who similarly enjoyed the playful use of Chinese stage terminology is Shikitei Sanba (\u5f0f\u4ead\u4e09\u99ac, 1776-1822) in his Shibai kinm\u014d zui<\/em> (\u622f\u5834\u8a13\u8499\u56f3\u5f59, \u201cIllustrated Dictionary of the Theatres\u201d).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Shikitei Sanba was born into a family of woodblock print carvers and therefore grew up immersed in the publishing industry. He published numerous works of fiction in all genres popular at the time, humorously portraying urban life in Edo, often enriched with poetic references. Shikitei cites a document called Hik\u014d den<\/em> (\u98db\u8679\u4f1d, \u201cTales of Flying over the Rainbow\u201d), in which emperor Shengzu of Qing (\u5eb7\u51de\u5e1d, 1654-1722) compares the sun and the moon to lanterns, the rivers and seas to oil, thunder and lightning to drums and gongs, describing the whole world as a theatre. This metaphor can be found in the Chinese preamble to the Kokuseiya ch\u016bgiden<\/em> (\u56fd\u59d3\u723a\u5fe0\u7fa9\u4f1d, \u201cLegends of The Loyality of Coxinga\u201d) by Confucian scholar Ukai Sekisai (\u9d5c\u98fc\u77f3\u658e, 1615-1664). This book is a 1717 reprint of Sekisai\u2019s Minshin t\u014dki <\/em>(\u660e\u6e05\u95d8\u8a18, \u201cBattles Of Ming and Qing,\u201d 1661), which formed the main source of playwright Chikamatsu Monzaemon used when creating his hugely successful ningy\u014d j\u014druri (Bunraku) puppet play Kokusen\u2019ya kassen<\/em> (\u56fd\u6027\u723a\u5408\u6226, \u201cBattles of Coxinga\u201d) in 1715.[3]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The Ky\u014dh\u014d reforms, introduced from 1716 onwards, included several statutes for promoting science and allowed the import of foreign books. Alongside scientific texts, a large quantity of other books also entered Japan. For example, Kabuki actor Ichikawa Danj\u016br\u014d II (\u4e8c\u4ee3\u76ee\u5e02\u5ddd\u56e3\u8535\u5718\u5341\u90ce, 1688-1758) notes in his diary that a friend brought him a \u201cChinese playbook\u201d to examine look at during his stay in Osaka in 1742 (Bj\u00f6rk 2019, 23-49). Apparently Chinese theatre books were in circulation too. This fascination with things Chinese is also evident in Yakusha sanj\u016bni s\u014dten ganky\u014d<\/em> (\u622f\u5b50\u5345\u4e8c\u76f8\u70b9\u9854\u93e1, \u201c\u201832 Actors\u2019 Portrait Horoscopes\u201d), a collection of portraits of 32 actors illustrated by Utagawa Toyokuni, designed as a parody of Chinese medical books. Yakusha kijin den<\/em> (\u4ff3\u512a\u7578\u4eba\u4f1d, \u201cTales of Famous Actors\u201d) by Tachikawa Enba II (\u7acb\u5ddd\u7109\u99ac, ca 1833) contains a curious illustration of the inside of a Chinese theatre by Utagawa Kunisada \u6b4c\u5ddd\u570b\u8c9e. The image appears between genealogical sections on the Naritaya (Ichikawa Danj\u016br\u014d) and Hamamuraya (Segawa Kikunoj\u014d \u702c\u5ddd\u83ca\u4e4b\u4e1e) acting lineages, apparently inserted without any direct textual explanation.<\/p>\n\n\n

\n
\"\"
Illustration of the Inside of a Chinese Theatre, Yakusha kijin den<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n\n\n

The of use of Chinese theatre terminology or the quote of emperor Shengzu about the world being a theatre are repeated in many of the dictionaries and works of fiction. This suggests that the idea that linking of the origins of Kabuki to Chinese theatre was commonplace. I argue, however, that both the references to the Age of the Gods, and the links to Chinese theatre, are examples of the use of the literary technique of mitate <\/em>\u898b\u7acb, rather than serious attempts to create an illustrious past for Kabuki. The mitate<\/em> technique is popularly used throughout Japanese artistic creation, functioning by drawing parallels between two dissonant realms, typically, elegant, ga<\/em> \u96c5, and the mundane, zoku<\/em> \u4fd7. The ga<\/em> realm can serve to elevate the zoku<\/em> realm (Bj\u00f6rk 2022, 231-63). However, mitate<\/em> can also function in a different way. When the contrast between the two realms is exaggerated, the effect can be humorous or parodic. In our case, by linking the elevated worlds of the gods and the Chinese stage to the origin of something so thoroughly zoku<\/em> as Kabuki, it becomes ironic. In my view, the historical references analyzed in this section should not be read as earnest claims but rather as humorous introductions to the following chronicles and genealogies, sections where the authors shift into a more serious tone.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Chronicles and Lineages<\/strong><\/h5>\n\n\n\n

Many publications starting from mid-seventeenth century depict the profile of the founder of the Nakamura za theatre, Saruwaka Kanzabur\u014d (\u733f\u82e5\u52d8\u4e09\u90ce), and describe his services to Tokugawa Ieyasu, the founder of the city of Edo itself. These publications describe the process of obtaining the yagura<\/em> business licenses of the three main theatres in Edo, the Nakamura za, the Ichimura za and the Morita za theatre, and provide the linages of individual famous actors. Towards the later nineteenth century, we see an increasing tendency amongst the authors to create chronological records rather than collecting amusing anecdotes. In the following, I will look at these aspects in order.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Saruwaka Kanzabur\u014d (\u733f\u82e5\u52d8\u4e09\u90ce), or Nakamura Kanzabur\u014d I (\u4e2d\u6751\u52d8\u4e09\u90ce, 1597\u22121658), was originally a Kyogen actor, who joined one of the early Kabuki dance troupes. Before coming to Edo and founding his theatre, he toured the countryside, and according to legend, he was famous for his beautiful voice and therefore ordered by Tokugawa Ieyasu himself to stand and sing at the stern of his flagship when he entered the bay of Edo. For his services he received a valuable cape and a golden staff, which were allegedly still part of Nakamura Kanzabur\u014d family\u2019s treasures in the nineteenth century (Sekine).\u3000<\/p>\n\n\n\n

In the Yakusha meibutsu sode nikki<\/em> (\u5f79\u8005\u540d\u7269\u8896\u65e5\u8a18, \u201cSecret Dairy of Famous Actors,\u201d 1771) we find the additional information that he had also been performing in the imperial court. Court records show that Okuni and other entertainers indeed were invited to perform at the imperial court, and Kabuki actors were often called to the Edo castle itself during the first half of the seventeenth century (Bjoerk 2019, 150-61), but quite apart from the historical probability of the statements being true, these descriptions in themselves lend a double respectability to the founder of the first licensed Kabuki theatre in Edo both from the imperial court and the Tokugawa government.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Bakin\u2019s Yakusha meisho zue<\/em>, also gives a description of the merits of Kanzabur\u014d I, but defines him as a member of Okuni troupe, who Bakin claims to be shrine maid from the great Izumo shrine, performing Kagura dances.<\/strong> Sazareishi Kabuki gekisho<\/em> (\u4e09\u5ea7\u4f8b\u907a\u8a8c\uff0f\u6b4c\u821e\u4f0e\u5287\u66f8, \u201cPebbles of Poems on the Three Theatres, Writings on Kabuki Theatre\u201d) contributes with a portrait of Saruwaka Kanzabur\u014d himself. We also find frequent mentioning of the illustrious cape and staff, all contributing to form the image of the founder of Edo Kabuki as a man sanctioned by the government.<\/p>\n\n\n

\n
\"\"
Portrait of Saruwaka Kanzabur\u014d, Sazareishi Kabuki gekisho<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n\n\n

The Kabuki theatres in Edo took great pride in being government sanctioned, and Yakusha meibutsu sode nikki<\/em> begins with citing a document which is supposedly the very document Kanzabur\u014d submitted to apply for a license to open a theatre. Also the Sazareishi Kabuki gekisho <\/em>claims to contain a copy of the document in question, but the most comprehensive publication describing the process of obtaining the licenses is the Hana no Edo Kabuki nendai ki<\/em> (\u82b1\u6c5f\u6238\u6b4c\u821e\u4f0e\u5e74\u4ee3\u8a18, \u201cChronicles of the Kabuki and the Flowers of Edo\u201d) by Tachikawa Enba (\u7acb\u5ddd\u7109\u99ac, 1743-1822) published in 1810.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Tachikawa Enba, was born into a carpenter\u2019s family, but became a playwright for Bunraku puppet plays, and is also famed as rakugo<\/em> storyteller.[4]<\/sup><\/a> He was a fierce fan of Danj\u016br\u014d V, and his critics often stress that his historical writings put too much focus on the Naritaya acting house\u2019s achievement, but nevertheless, this publication is lauded as a valuable first attempt at creating a comprehensive historical chronicle for Kabuki.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

The first attempt to create a history of an individual actor, however, is seen almost 80 years earlier, in the pictured chronicle of the plays performed by Ichikawa Danj\u016br\u014d II, from his childhood to 1728, when the book Kin no zai<\/em> (\u91d1\u4e4b\u63ee, \u201cGolden Staff\u201d) was published. The chronicle starts with a description of the acting of Ichikawa Danj\u016br\u014d I (1644-1704), the father of Danj\u016br\u014d II, but the focus is on the achievements of Danj\u016br\u014d II, listing all plays he partook in each year, with an illustration on the top of the entry of the most successful one. The author \u2013 or commissioner \u2013 of the publication was clearly a huge fan of Danj\u016br\u014d II, so the tone is flattering, but the format came to be adopted by later chroniclers of Kabuki, so it is an influential publication.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Book 2 of the Yakusha meibutsu sode nikki<\/em> contains a presentation of the family crests of certain famous actors, such as the crane of lead actor Nakamura Denk\u016br\u014d (\u4e2d\u6751\u4f1d\u4e5d\u90ce), the threefold rice measure, clouds and lightening, and the peony, all in use by the Ichikawa Danj\u016br\u014d acting house, the swallows of Sawamura S\u014dj\u016br\u014d (\u6ca2\u6751\u60e3\u5341\u90ce), and the cotton bundle of Segawa Kikunoj\u014d. Kabuki actors are listed together with their crests already from the first Actors\u2019 Review Yaro mushi <\/em>(\u91ce\u90ce\u866b, \u201cActors\u2019 Bug,\u201d 1660), the custom aimed at establishing a credibility for the actors to be regarded as townsmen or artisans. In fact, all genealogies without exception do list the crests.<\/p>\n\n\n

\n
\"\"
Crests of Nakamura Denkur\u014d and Ichikawa Danj\u016br\u014d, Yakusha meibutsu sode nikki<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n\n\n

An acting house sports a yago<\/em> (\u5c4b\u53f7, \u201chouse name\u201d), just as merchant and artisan houses would. It is unclear exactly when they became common in the world of Kabuki. Some claim that Ichikawa Danj\u016br\u014d I started using the yago<\/em> Naritaya after the successful first enactment of the Acala deity of Naritasan Shinsho-ji Temple and the introduction of his ten-year old son as the wish-child of the same deity in 1698, but other point to that actors started to sell their own brand merchandize as early as the year 1660 (Bj\u00f6rk 2019, 75-87). Be that as it may, the yago<\/em> practice was in any case well established by the early nineteenth century.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

The Yakusha yoyo no tsugiki<\/em> (\u4ff3\u512a\u4e16\u3005\u306e\u63a5\u6728, \u201cBranches of Generations of Actors\u201d), focuses on important plays and events of Naritaya acting house starting from Ichikawa Danj\u016br\u014d I and listing fourteen actors belonging to his acting house, following with Danj\u016br\u014d II with twenty-five followers, up until Danj\u016br\u014d VIII with ever increasing members of the acting house. After that, closely related linages, such as the Ichikawa Danz\u014d (\u5e02\u5ddd\u56e3\u8535), from first to fifth generation, follows. The publication stretches over 200 pages, effectively functioning as a comprehensive directory of who-is-who in the world of Kabuki around 1820.<\/p>\n\n\n

\n
\"\"
Part of the genealogy of the Naritaya acting house, Yakusha yoyo no tsugiki <\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n\n\n

The same focus on presenting the linages of acting houses can be seen in the Haiyu kei <\/em>(\u4ff3\u512a\u89fd, \u201cAnnotations on Actors\u201d), first published in 1771 and updated in 1824 and the Shibai keizu<\/em> (\u622f\u5834\u5bb6\u8b5c, \u201cFamily lineages of the Theatres\u201d) from 1850.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Finally, the Hana yagura newake no Okabu<\/em> (\u82b1\u6ad3\u6839\u5206\u5927\u6b4c\u821e, \u201cThe Roots of the Great Flowering Theatre Turrets\u201d) published in 1859 by the playwright and journalist Kanagaki Robun (\u4eee\u540d\u57a3\u9b6f\u6587, 1829-1894) follows the same trend. The foreword states that the book builds on the previous genealogies and aims to be a guide for beginners, and lists important actors, roles they are famous for, their pen names, ranking, and even their yearly wages.[5]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n

These kinds of genealogies and chronologies clearly aim at providing a service for fans to keep track of who is who in the world of Kabuki, at the same time as they present the theatres, acting houses and individual actors as respectable businesses with long lineages, originally endorsed by both the imperial court and the shogunate.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

The stress on presenting each generation of an acting linage also contributes to create an image of Kabuki actors as a merchant or artisan. <\/strong>The idea that the actors also were merchants is supported by both the use of family crests and yago<\/em>. The fact that a myriad of merchandize sporting signs were for sale, and that they were accepted as a sort of merchant or artisan is confirmed by the inclusion of Kabuki theatres in the nineteenth century picture scroll Kinsei shokunin zuskushi e kotoba<\/em> (\u8fd1\u4e16\u8077\u4eba\u5c3d\u7d75\u8a5e, \u201cEarly Modern Artisans in Pictures and Words\u201d) by Kuwagata Keisai (\u936c\u5f62\u8559\u658e, 1764-1824).<\/p>\n\n\n

\n
\"\"
Kabuki theatres presented as one of the artisan professions, Kinsei shokunin zuskushi e kotoba<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n\n\n

From the above image, we can conclude that eighteenth- and nineteenth-century publications on the history of Kabuki often employed playful references to mythical origins, such as ties to the age of the gods or the exotic Chinese theatre, while simultaneously presenting a chronologically structured narrative of the theatres and actors\u2019 lineages which stressed the respectability of the world of Kabuki. Here, the tradition of Kabuki can be interpreted as the continuation of a family business rather than the form of the acting itself.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

In the following section, I will briefly look at how this perspective changed in the twentieth century.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Omissions and the Historiography of the Twentieth Century<\/strong><\/h5>\n\n\n\n

While investigating these books, a few notable omissions became apparent, such as the relatively weak presence of Okuni in early modern publications, as well as minimal mention of critical court cases deciding on the survival of the theatres. In the following, I will discuss these points in the light of how these omissions later became the very nodes around which the historiography of the twentieth century was rewritten.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Only three publications mention Okuni at all, namely Bakin\u2019s Yakusha meisho zue<\/em>), the dictionary Gakuya zue shue<\/em> (\u622f\u5834\u697d\u5c4b\u56f3\u4f1a, \u201cPicture Collection from Backstage\u201d) and the comic novel Yakusha gakuya tsu<\/em> (\u4ff3\u512a\u697d\u5ba4\u901a, \u201cLiteracy of the Customs of Actors and the Backstage\u201d). Considering how well documented she is in contemporary sources from the early seventeenth century (both in official court records and various works of art, such as valuable folding screens and picture scrolls), this is rather surprising.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Looking for other events which are now the key stones on which the narrative of the history of Kabuki is built, there were certain other aspects missing as well. The existence of, and consequent banning of Kabuki by courtesans in 1629 is not mentioned even in the most extensive history book, the Hana no Edo Kabuki nendai ki. <\/em>The ban on young male wakashu <\/em>actors in 1652, gets a one-line laconic nod, and the great Ejima-Ikushima scandal which shocked the world of Kabuki in 1714 is mentioned in just two lines. First line states that the Yamamura za closed, and the following line that Danj\u016br\u014d II therefore first moved to the Morita za and then to the Nakamura za theatre.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

All the above are well documented cases, both in official records and essays by contemporary eyewitnesses. Therefore, the authors of these commercial publications were likely aware of them. Possibly, they chose to omit details which could damage the respectability of Kabuki in the publications which were meant to both amuse the readers and promote the theatres.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

But at the same time as the commercial publications continued to be printed, efforts to compile primary sources which tell the tale of the now more than 200 years of Kabuki theatre commenced. One such compilation is the Enseki jisshu<\/em> (\u71d5\u77f3\u5341\u7a2e, \u201cTen Seeds of Swallows and Stones\u201d) which was compiled by book collector and dealer Iwamoto Sashichi (\u5ca9\u672c\u4f50\u4e03, also known as Darumaya Katt\u014dshi \u9054\u78e8\u5c4b\u6d3b\u6771\u5b50). The first handwritten copy was completed in 1863, first printed in 1907, followed by several re-prints. It has become one of the canonical documents used by Kabuki scholars. It contains various essays and diaries such as Tonari no senki<\/em> (\u96a3\u306e\u759d\u6c17, \u201cMy Neighbors Colic,\u201d 1763) by Hara Morikazu (\u539f\u76db\u548c), a retainer to a feudal lord from Tottori domain who offers an eyewitness report of the recession caused by the Ky\u014dh\u014d reforms at the theatres. Also Oi no tanoshimi<\/em> (\u8001\u306e\u697d\u3057\u307f, \u201cPleasures of the Old\u201d), a digest copy of the diary of Ichikawa Danj\u016br\u014d II, which gives insights into the daily life of an actor, and manuals for the theatre management written by playwright Mimasuya Niz\u014dji \u4e09\u5347\u5c4b\u4e8c\u4e09\u6cbb in the 1850 are included.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Using these primary sources, in combination with official documentation from the magistrate, historian Ishitsuka H\u014dkaishi (\u77f3\u585a\u8c4a\u82a5\u5b50, 1799-1862) undertook the continuation of the Hana no Edo Kabuki nendaiki<\/em>, now documenting the years 1805-1859. This work was inherited by Tamura Nariyoshi (\u7530\u6751\u6210\u7fa9, 1851-1920), a Kabuki entrepreneur of the Meiji period, gathering documentation up until 1903.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Simultaneous with these efforts theatre scholar Sekine Shisei (\u95a2\u6839\u53ea\u8aa0 1825-1893), collected primary sources and compiled them into his Shibai nenpy\u014d<\/em> (\u622f\u5834\u5e74\u8868, \u201cTheatre Chronicle\u201d), a handwritten chronicle, starting from the Nakamura za obtaining its license in 1624, and the development of the theatre buildings and their locations up until 1859. Building on this, theatre scholar Ihara Seiseien (\u4f0a\u539f\u9752\u3005\u5712, 1870-1941) compiled the eight volumes of Kabuki nenpy\u014d <\/em>(\u6b4c\u821e\u4f0e\u5e74\u8868, \u201cKabuki Chronicle\u201d) cross-referencing it with the Actors\u2019 Review. This work was commissioned by theatre scholar and Shakespeare translator Tsubouchi Sh\u014dy\u014d (\u576a\u5185\u900d\u9065, 1859-1935) in 1894 and covers the period from the beginning of the seventeenth century to 1907. It was eventually published after the death of the author, in 1963.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

The historiography based on these primary sources presents Kabuki in a new light. It stresses Kabuki\u2019s origins as a form of counterculture and pinpoints the many wrangles the world of Kabuki had with the Tokugawa government. This stands in stark contrast to the early modern commercial publications.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

It may seem counter-intuitive that the world of Kabuki which sought to present itself as respectable family businesses in the early modern period and was eager to r rebrand itself as high culture<\/em>, worthy of being performed before the Meiji Emperor, and embodying a national ethos, would embrace an origin narrative as descending from the itinerant female performer Okuni and imitated by prostitutes and the casteless, always in opposition to authority. <\/p>\n\n\n\n

Efforts by leading actor Ichikawa Danjuro IX to rebrand Kabuki as theatre, in the European sense of being \u201chigh art\u201d rather than entertainment, led to that Kabuki was chosen as the official entertainment when the U.S. ambassador Ulysses Grant visited in 1979, and culminated with a performance in front of the imperial court in 1887.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Scholars such as Tsubouchi Sh\u014dy\u014d also wrote new Kabuki plays, attempting to impose a concept of modern psychology onto Kabuki\u2019s traditional stock characters. Based on the trajectory of this research, one might speculate that there was a perceived need to emphasize Kabuki as \u201ca performance culture born of the people,\u201d with the theatres positioned as adversaries of a \u201ctyrannical feudal society,\u201d in order to align the art form with the values of the new Meiji period, which had overthrown the Tokugawa regime.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

It is also from this period onward that we see a shift in the understanding of tradition, from the succession of the family business to the continuation of the form of acting and stage art itself. This interpretation was further encouraged after the Second World War and was ultimately cemented by Kabuki\u2019s inclusion on UNESCO\u2019s list of intangible cultural heritage.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

In conclusion, we have seen that Zeami traced the origins of Noh to the age of the gods, and to imported performance arts sponsored by the ancient imperial court with the aim of showing that this was an art worthy of the support of the shogunate and the imperial court. This narrative was later adopted by early modern publications on Kabuki.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

These early modern publications play humorously with the nobility of the gods and Chinese parables, while also emphasizing the legitimacy of their business licenses backed by the government, and the long licences of their actors. In doing so they reinforced respectability of Kabuki as a family-run enterprise.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

After the Meiji restoration, however, the world of Kabuki stressed that it was a culture born from the people, which had been \u201cresisting the feudal authority.\u201d This time, the aim may have been to position Kabuki as a fitting representative of the new nation-state. Perhaps for this reason, greater emphasis was placed on the continuity of the performance style itself, rather than the tradition of the business.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Be that as it may, it is clear that the creation of a tradition has continued but the notion of what is important in this tradition has changed to fit the various political, social and economic circumstances of the theatrical world itself. It is therefore foreseeable that the concept of tradition will continue to evolve as those circumstances change.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Editorial note<\/strong>: This article draws on the extensive body of research conducted by Tove Johanna Bjoerk. Prepared for the Inter-Asia Special Issue of Critical Stages<\/em>, it presents a summary of her findings, serving as a preface to her forthcoming publications.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\n\n\n\n
Endnotes<\/strong><\/h5>\n\n\n\n

[1]<\/sup><\/a> The Union Catalogue Database of Japanese Texts (\u56fd\u66f8\u30c7\u30fc\u30bf\u30d9\u30fc\u30b9) operated by the National Institute of Japanese Literature lists 16 early modern publications, dated from as early as 1650. See here<\/a>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

[2]<\/sup><\/a> The Japanese printing industry developed first in Kyoto, where the printers used to publish Buddhist didactic texts turned to printing the imperial poetry collections, Heian period monogatari <\/em>tales and medieval war epos, which had hitherto only existed as handwritten copies until the mid-seventeenth century. As levels of literacy rose, they soon turned to printing tales of contemporary matters in vernacular Japanese, the so-called kana-z\u014dshi,<\/em> and commercial printers based in Osaka started producing ukiyo-z\u014dshi <\/em>literature commenting on the lifestyle of the licensed quarters and theatres as well as guidebooks and reviews of the same. By the nineteenth century, the center of the publishing industry had moved to Edo, where publishers such as Tsutaya J\u016bsabur\u014d from the latter half of the century successfully collaborated with ukiyo-e artists and authors in various genres to produce a wide range of popular books to be consumed by warriors and merchants, women and children alike (Suzuki 2012).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

[3]<\/sup><\/a> This preamble does not exist in the previous publication, and it is unclear who the author is. However, Ueda Akinari (\u4e0a\u7530\u79cb\u6210, 1734-1809), is cited in his novel Shod\u014d kiki mimi seken zaru<\/em> (\u8af8\u9053\u8074\u8033\u4e16\u9593\u72d9,\u201dListening to Gossip from the Monkeys of this World,\u201d 1766) and by scholar Morishima Ch\u016bry\u014d (\u68ee\u5cf6\u4e2d\u826f, 1756-1810) in his contemporary Chinese Japanese dictionary Zokugo kai<\/em> (\u4fd7\u8a9e\u89e3, \u201cUnderstanding Colloquial Terms,\u2019\u201d1810). So apparently it was in circulation among the Japanese literati of the mid- to late eighteenth century. Whether this is a mere zeitgeist <\/em>coincidence or there is an actual transmission of this thought is unclear, but it is interesting to note that the content of this citation coincides with the European notion of teatrum mundi, which was popularized during the Renaissance.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

[4]<\/sup><\/a> Rakugo<\/em> \u843d\u8a9eis a storytelling art in which one performer using only changes in his voice, hand gestures, a fan and a hand towel tell a humorous narrative. It emerged from medieval Buddhist didactic sermons but took a mundane and humorous turn in the seventeenth century to become an immensely popular form of entertainment by the nineteenth century.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

[5]<\/sup><\/a> The origins of government-sanctioned yagura<\/em> licenses and the lineages of prominent acting houses, such as the Naritaya, can also be found scattered across dictionaries, fiction, and poetry. This suggests a broad consensus among publishers across various genres, as well as their readership, that such information was essential to any discussion of Kabuki.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Bibliography<\/strong><\/h5>\n\n\n\n

Bj\u00f6rk, Tove. Nidaime Ichikawa Danj\u016br\u014d no nikki ni miru Ky\u014dh\u014d ki Edo Kabuki<\/em> [\u4e8c\u4ee3\u76ee\u5e02\u5ddd\u5718\u5341\u90ce\u306e\u65e5\u8a18\u306b\u307f\u308b\u4eab\u4fdd\u671f\u6c5f\u6238\u6b4c\u821e\u4f0e, Edo Kabuki of the Ky\u014dh\u014d Period as Seen in the Diary of Ichikawa Danj\u016br\u014d II<\/em>]. Bungaku Ts\u016bshin, 2019.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\u2014\u2014\u2014. \u201cReading and Acting in Early Modern Kabuki: Browsing the Library of Ichikawa Danj\u016br\u014d II.\u201d Journal of the Society for Asian Humanities<\/em>, vol. 53, 2022.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Hattori, Yukio. Kabuki seiritsu no kenky\u016b<\/em> [\u6b4c\u821e\u4f0e\u6210\u7acb\u306e\u7814\u7a76, Research on the Origins of Kabuki<\/em>]. Kasama Shob\u014d, 1968.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Kagaya, Shinko, and Hiroko Miura. \u201cNoh and Muromachi Culture.\u201d A History of Japanese Theatre<\/em>, edited by Jonah Salz, Cambridge UP, 2016, pp. 24-61.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Sekine, Shisei. T\u014dto gekij\u014d enkaku shiry\u014d<\/em> [\u6771\u90fd\u5287\u5834\u6cbf\u9769\u8a8c\u6599, Historical Document Collection of the Eastern Capital<\/em>]. Kokuritsu Gekij\u014d Gein\u014d Ch\u014dsa Shitsu, 1983.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Suzuki, Toshiyuki. Tsutaya J\u016bsabur\u014d<\/em> [\u8526\u5c4b\u91cd\u4e09\u90ce]. Heibonsha, 2012.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Takei, Ky\u014dz\u014d. Wakash\u016b kabuki\/yar\u014d kabuki no kenky\u016b<\/em> [\u82e5\u8846\u6b4c\u821e\u4f0e\u30fb\u91ce\u90ce\u6b4c\u821e\u4f0e\u306e\u7814\u7a76, Research on Wakash\u016b and Yar\u014d Kabuki<\/em>]. Yagi Shoten, 2000.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Takemoto, Mikio. \u201cKaisetsu\u201d [\u89e3\u8aac, Commentary<\/em>]. Fushikaden \/ Sand\u014d<\/em> [\u98a8\u59ff\u82b1\u4f1d\u30fb\u5c71\u9053, Tales of the Wind and Flower \/ Three Roads<\/em>], Kadokawa, 2014.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Terauchi, Naoko. \u201cAncient and Early Medieval Performing Arts.\u201d A History of Japanese Theatre<\/em>, edited by Jonah Salz, Cambridge UP, 2016, pp. 4-19.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Wilmer, S. E., editor. Writing and Rewriting National Theatre Histories<\/em>. U of Iowa P, 2004.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Zeami. Fushikaden<\/em> [\u98a8\u59ff\u82b1\u4f1d, Tales of the Wind and Flower<\/em>]. Translated by William Scott Wilson, The Spirit of Noh: A New Translation of the Classic Noh Treatise the Fushikaden<\/em>, Shambhala Publications, 2013.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

List of Investigated Publications (chronological)<\/strong><\/h5>\n\n\n\n
Historiographies and Chronologies<\/em><\/strong><\/h6>\n\n\n\n
    \n
  1. Yakusha meibutsu sode nikki<\/em> [\u5f79\u8005\u540d\u7269\u8896\u65e5\u8a18, Secret Dairy of Famous Actors<\/em>] by Banritei Fukoku \u4e07\u91cc\u4ead\u592b\u53e4\u5de5, published by Kawana T\u014dhachiro \u6cb3\u540d\u85e4\u516b\u90ceand Kikuoka Kichiemon \u83ca\u5ca1\u5409\u53f3\u885b\u9580, 1771.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
  2. Omoshiro ya shibai no hajimari<\/em> [\u904a\u697d\u622f\u5834\u306e\u6feb\u89f4, The Funny Beginnings of Theatre<\/em>] published by Tsutaya J\u016bsabur\u014d \u8526\u5c4b\u91cd\u4e09\u90ce, 1780.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
  3. Yakusha meisho zue <\/em>[\u622f\u5b50\u540d\u6240\u56f3\u4f1a, Picture Collection of Famous Places for Actors<\/em>] by Kyokutei Bakin \u66f2\u4ead\u99ac\u7434 and Utagawa Toyokuni I \u6b4c\u5ddd\u8c4a\u56fd, published by Hanamoto Yasujiro \u83ef\u672c\u5b89\u6cbb, Kashiwara Seijiro \u67cf\u539f\u653f\u6cbb\u90ce, 1803.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
  4. Sazareishi Kabuki gekisho <\/em>[\u4e09\u5ea7\u4f8b\u907a\u8a8c\uff0f\u6b4c\u821e\u4f0e\u5287\u66f8, Pebbles of Poems on the Three Theatres, Writings on Kabuki Theatre<\/em>] by Kyokuroan Shujin \u66f2\u5eec\u5eb5\u4e3b\u4eba, published by Kazusaya Ch\u016bsuke\u4e0a\u7dcf\u5c4b\u5fe0\u52a9, Iseya Ch\u016bemon \u4f0a\u52e2\u5c4b\u5fe0\u53f3\u30a8\u9580 and Owariya Ch\u016bsuke \u5c3e\u5f35\u5c4b\u5fe0\u8f14, 1803.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
  5. Gakuya zue sh\u016bi<\/em> [\u697d\u5c4b\u56f3\u4f1a\u62fe\u907a, Selected Illustrations from Backstage<\/em>] by Sh\u014dk\u014dsai Hanb\u0113 \u677e\u597d\u9f4b\u534a\u5175\u885b, published by Shioya Ch\u014dbei \u9e7d\u5c4b\u9577\u5175\u885b, 1803.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
  6. Shibai kinm\u016b zui<\/em> [\u622f\u5834\u8a13\u8499\u56f3\u5f59, Illustrated Dictionary of the Theatres<\/em>] by Shikitei Sanba \u5f0f\u4ead\u4e09\u99ac and Katsukawa Shunei\u52dd\u5ddd\u6625\u82f1, Utagawa Toyokuni \u6b4c\u5ddd\u8c4a\u56fd, published by Kazusaya Ch\u016bsuke\u4e0a\u7dcf\u5c4b\u5fe0\u52a9, 1803.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
  7. Hana no Edo Kabuki nendai ki<\/em> [\u82b1\u6c5f\u6238\u6b4c\u821e\u4f0e\u5e74\u4ee3\u8a18, Chronicles of the Kabuki and the Flowers of Edo<\/em>] by Tachikawa Enba \u7acb\u5ddd\u7109\u99ac and Katsukwa Shuntei \u52dd\u5ddd\u6625\u4ead, published by Ch\u014dshiya Tadashichi \u4e01\u5b50\u5c4b\u5fe0\u4e03+ 5 others, 1811.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n\n\n
    Actors’ Genealogies<\/em><\/strong><\/h6>\n\n\n\n
      \n
    1. Kin no zai <\/em>[\u91d1\u4e4b\u63ee,Golden Staff<\/em>] by Kond\u014d Kiyoharu \u8fd1\u85e4\u6e05\u6625, published by Okumura Genroku\u5965\u6751\u6e90\u516d, 1728.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
    2. Haiy\u016b kei<\/em> [\u4ff3\u512a\u89fd, Annotations on Actors<\/em>] serialized in 1771 and 1824.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
    3. Yakusha sanj\u016bni s\u014dten ganky\u014d <\/em>[\u622f\u5b50\u5345\u4e8c\u76f8\u70b9\u9854\u93e1, 32 Actors\u2019 Portrait Horoscopes<\/em>] by Toshi Shokyaku\u6771\u5b50\u6a35\u5ba2and Utagawa Toyokuni \u6b4c\u5ddd\u8c4a\u56fd, published by Tsutaya J\u016bsabur\u014d \u8526\u5c4b\u91cd\u4e09\u90ce, 1802.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
    4. T\u014dto sanj\u014d haiy\u016b kei<\/em> [\u6771\u90fd\u4e09\u5872\u4ff3\u512a\u89fd, Accounts of Actors of the Three Theatres in the Eastern Capital<\/em>] by Toshi Shokyaku \u6771\u5b50\u6a35\u5ba2 Utagawa Toyokuni \u6b4c\u5ddd\u8c4a\u56fd, published by Horinoya Jinbe \u5800\u91ce\u5c4b\u4ec1\u5175\u885e, Harimaya Shinshichi \u64ad\u78e8\u5c4b\u65b0\u4e03, 1803.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
    5. Kokon yakusha kefu<\/em> [\u53e4\u4eca\u4ff3\u512a\u5bb6\u8b5c, Genealogies of Actors Past and Present<\/em>] published by Hachimonjiya Yasaemon \u516b\u6587\u5b57\u5c4b\u516b\u5de6\u885e\u9580, 1805.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
    6. Yakusha yoyo no tsugiki<\/em> [\u4ff3\u512a\u4e16\u3005\u306e\u63a5\u6728, Branches of Generations of Actors<\/em>] by Yakushado Muy\u016b \u4ff3\u512a\u5802\u5922\u904a, 1820.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
    7. Yakusha kijin den <\/em>[\u4ff3\u512a\u7578\u4eba\u4f1d, Tales of Famous Actors<\/em>] by Tachikawa Enba \u7acb\u5ddd\u7109\u99acand Utagawa Kunisada \u6b4c\u5ddd\u570b\u8c9e, published by Moriya Jihe \u68ee\u5c4b\u6cbb\u5175\u885b, 1833.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
    8. Shibai kefu <\/em>[\u622f\u5834\u5bb6\u8b5c, Family lineages of the Theatres<\/em>] published by Kinseido \u9326\u76db\u5802, 1850.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
    9. Hana yagura newake no Okabu<\/em> [\u82b1\u6ad3\u6839\u5206\u5927\u6b4c\u821e, The Roots of the Flowering Theatre Turrets<\/em>] by Kanagaki Robun \u4eee\u540d\u57a3\u9b6f\u6587, published by Shushun do \u5468\u6625\u5802, 1859.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n\n\n
      Dictionaries and Guidebooks<\/em><\/strong><\/h6>\n\n\n\n
        \n
      1. Ehon sakae gusa<\/em> [\u7d75\u672c\u4e09\u5bb6\u6804\u7a2e, Pictured Book of the Thriving of the Three Houses<\/em>] by Kitao Shigemasa \u5317\u5c3e\u91cd\u653f, published by Nakamura Kohe \u4e2d\u6751\u5c0f\u5175\u885b, 1771. <\/li>\n\n\n\n
      2. Gakuya zue shue<\/em> [\u622f\u5834\u697d\u5c4b\u56f3\u4f1a, Picture Collection from Backstage<\/em>] by Sh\u014dk\u014dsai Hanb\u0113 \u677e\u597d\u658e\u534a\u5175\u885b, published by Shioya Ch\u014db\u0113 \u9e7d\u5c4b\u9577\u5175\u885b, 1800.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
      3. Z\u014dho Shibai ichiran <\/em>[\u5897\u88dc\u622f\u5834\u4e00\u89a7, Improved Overview of the Theatres<\/em>] published by Hachimonjiya Jish\u014d \u516b\u6587\u5b57\u81ea\u7b11, 1800.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
      4. Shibai setsuy\u014d sh\u016b<\/em> [\u622f\u5834\u7bc0\u7528\u96c6, Collection of Theatre Terminology<\/em>] by Kobunsha Seishi \u597d\u6587\u820e\u9752\u6c0f and Takehara Unpo \u7af9\u539f\u96f2\u5cf0, 1801.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
      5. Shibai ga shi <\/em>[\u5287\u5834\u753b\u53f2, Pictured Theatre History<\/em>], by Taga Jokei \u591a\u8cc0\u5982\u572d, 1802.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
      6. Haiy\u016b ko no tegashiwa<\/em> [\u4ff3\u512a\u5150\u624b\u67cf, The Oak by the Young Actor’s Hand<\/em>] by Sh\u014dk\u014dsai Hanb\u0113 \u677e\u597d\u658e\u534a\u5175\u885b, 1802.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
      7. Ehon shibai nenj\u016b kagami <\/em>[\u7d75\u672c\u622f\u5834\u5e74\u4e2d\u9451, The Year at the Theatre in Pictures<\/em>] by Takamura Chikuri \u7bc1\u7af9\u91cc and Utagawa Toyokuni \u6b4c\u5ddd\u8c4a\u56fd, published by Hamamatsuya K\u014dsuke \u6ff1\u677e\u5c4b\u5e78\u52a9, 1803.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
      8. Shibai koto no hagusa<\/em> [\u622f\u5834\u8a00\u8449\u8349, Terminology of the Theatres<\/em>] by Sh\u014dk\u014dsai Hanb\u0113 \u677e\u597d\u658e\u534a\u5175\u885b, 1803.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
      9. Shibai saiken sanbas\u014d<\/em> [\u829d\u5c45\u7d30\u898b\u4e09\u8449\u8349, Guidebook to the Theatre Quarters<\/em>] by Utei Enba \u70cf\u4ead\u7109\u99ac, 1816.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
      10. Yakusha fuzoku Sangoku shi <\/em>[\u5f79\u8005\u98a8\u4fd7\u4e09\u56fd\u5fd7, The Romance of the Three Kingdoms and the Manners at the Theatre<\/em>], by Hanagasa Bunkyo \u82b1\u7b20\u6587\u4eac and Ryusai Shigeharu \u67f3\u658e\u91cd\u6625, published by Tsuruya Kiemon \u9db4\u5c4b\u559c\u53f3\u885b\u9580, 1831.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n\n\n
        Miscellaneous<\/em><\/strong><\/h6>\n\n\n\n
          \n
        1. Sekai no maku nashi <\/em>[\u4e16\u754c\u306e\u5e55\u306a\u3057, The World is a Stage with no Curtains<\/em>] by Honzentai Tsubohira \u672c\u81b3\u4ead\u576a\u5e73, 1782.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
        2. Shikata haikai<\/em> [\u3057\u304b\u305f\u4ff3\u8ae7, Haikai Poetry of Stage Musicians<\/em>] by Nishimura Teiga \u897f\u6751\u5b9a\u96c5, 1783.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
        3. Edo hana yakusha biiki<\/em> [\u6c5f\u6238\u82b1\u4ff3\u512a\u8d14\u5c53, Fans of the Actors of Flowering Edo<\/em>] by Sant\u014d Ky\u014dden \u5c71\u6771\u4eac\u4f1d and Kitao Masayoshi \u5317\u5c3e\u653f\u7f8e, published by Nishimura Shinroku \u897f\u5bae\u65b0\u516d, 1789.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
        4. Yakusha gakuya ts\u016b <\/em>[\u4ff3\u512a\u697d\u5ba4\u901a, Literacy of the Customs of Actors and the Backstage<\/em>] by Shikitei Sanba \u5f0f\u4ead\u4e09\u99ac and Utagawa Toyokuni I \u6b4c\u5ddd\u8c4a\u56fd, 1790.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
        5. Ari no mama inaka shibai<\/em> [\u898b\u901a\u9119\u622f\u5834, Village Theatre as it Truly Is<\/em>], by Ry\u016by\u016bsha Enkei \u67f3\u967d\u820e\u8597\u9d8f, published by Sagamiya Niemon \u76f8\u6a21\u5c4b\u4ec1\u53f3\u30a8\u9580, 1806.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
        6. Ehon Kawasaki ond\u014d<\/em> [\u7d75\u672c\u5ddd\u5d0e\u97f3\u982d, Illustrations of Kawasaki Ondo Music<\/em>] by Testugoshi Hamaru \u9244\u683c\u5b50\u6ce2\u4e38and Sh\u014dk\u014dsai Hanb\u0113 \u677e\u597d\u658e\u534a\u5175\u885b, published by Kawachiya Daisuke \u6cb3\u5185\u5c4b\u592a\u52a9, 1806.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
        7. Kej\u014d suigen maku no soto <\/em>[\u622f\u5834\u7c8b\u8a00\u5e55\u4e43\u5916, Elegant Words Spoken outside the Curtain<\/em>], by Shikitei Sanba \u5f0f\u4ead\u4e09\u99ac, 1806.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
        8. Shibai hyakunin issh\u016b<\/em> [\u622f\u5834\u767e\u4eba\u4e00\u9996, Hundred Poems of Theatre People<\/em>], by Kinoo Samaru \u7d00\u5c3e\u4f50\u4e38 and Katsukawa Shuntei \u52dd\u5ddd\u6625\u4ead, 1820.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
        9. Kabuki shiire momiji no surieda <\/em>[\u622f\u5834\u4ed5\u5165\u6953\u91e3, The Coloured Maple Branches of Kabuki Purchases<\/em>] by Takarada Jusuke \u5b9d\u7530\u5bff\u52a9 and Utagawa Kunimaru \u6b4c\u5ddd\u56fd\u4e38, 1824.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
        10. Kyoka shibai hyaku sh\u016b <\/em>[\u72c2\u6b4c\u622f\u5834\u767e\u9996, One Hundered Kyoka Poems on the Theatres<\/em>] by Shakuyakutei Nagane \u828d\u85ac\u4ead\u9577\u6839 and Takekumaan Futaki \u6b66\u9688\u5eb5\u96d9\u6a39, published by Yanagawa Shigenobu \u67f3\u5ddd\u91cd\u4fe1, 1832.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
        11. Hana no kage shizu ga wazaogi<\/em> [\u82b1\u852d\u8ce4\u4e4b\u4ff3\u512a, In the Poor Acting in the Shadows of the Flowers<\/em>] by Ryutei Senka \u7b20\u4ead\u4ed9\u679cand Utagawa Kunitora \u6b4c\u5ddd\u56fd\u864e, published by Osaku Ky\u016bya \u5c3e\u5d0e\u4e45\u5f25, 1836. <\/li>\n\n\n\n
        12. Haiy\u016b gakuya z\u014ddan<\/em> [\u4ff3\u512a\u697d\u5c4b\u96d1\u8ac7, Miscellaneous Talks About Actors Backstage<\/em>] by Utei Enba II\u70cf\u4ead\u7109\u99ac\u4e8c\u4e16 and Utagawa Kunisada \u6b4c\u5ddd\u56fd\u8c9e, 1842. <\/a><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n\n\n
          \n\n\n\n
          \"\"<\/figure>\n\n\n\n

          *<\/a>Tove Johanna Bjoerk<\/strong><\/strong><\/strong> (PhD) is professor in Early Modern Japanese Literature at Saitama University. Her research focuses on how the world of Kabuki is described in early modern diaries. She has published extensively on the diary of the Edo Kabuki actor Ichikawa Danj\u016br\u014d II and the development of the early modern entertainment industry, while also examining rural and private performance venues, as well as the role of affiliated teahouses, based on diary records of various Kabuki-loving feudal lords.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

          Copyright \u00a9<\/strong> 2025 Tove Johanna Bjoerk
          Critical Stages\/Sc\u00e8nes critiques<\/em>, #32, December 2025
          e-ISSN: 2409-7411<\/p>\n\n\n

          \n
          \"Creative<\/a><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n\n\n

          This work is licensed under the
          Creative Commons Attribution International License CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":170,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"advanced_seo_description":"","jetpack_seo_html_title":"","jetpack_seo_noindex":false,"jetpack_seo_schema_type":"","_jetpack_newsletter_access":"","_jetpack_dont_email_post_to_subs":false,"_jetpack_newsletter_tier_id":0,"_jetpack_memberships_contains_paywalled_content":false,"_jetpack_feature_clip_id":0,"_jetpack_memberships_contains_paid_content":false,"footnotes":"","jetpack_post_was_ever_published":false},"categories":[8],"tags":[],"class_list":["post-169","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","has-post-thumbnail","hentry","category-special-topic"],"jetpack_sharing_enabled":true,"jetpack_featured_media_url":"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/www.critical-stages.org\/32\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/33\/2025\/10\/featured.jpg?fit=800%2C532&ssl=1","_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.critical-stages.org\/32\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/169","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.critical-stages.org\/32\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.critical-stages.org\/32\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.critical-stages.org\/32\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/1"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.critical-stages.org\/32\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=169"}],"version-history":[{"count":8,"href":"https:\/\/www.critical-stages.org\/32\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/169\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":990,"href":"https:\/\/www.critical-stages.org\/32\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/169\/revisions\/990"}],"wp:featuredmedia":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.critical-stages.org\/32\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media\/170"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.critical-stages.org\/32\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=169"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.critical-stages.org\/32\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=169"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.critical-stages.org\/32\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=169"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}