{"id":804,"date":"2020-06-08T19:10:25","date_gmt":"2020-06-08T19:10:25","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/www.critical-stages.org\/21\/?p=804"},"modified":"2026-06-22T10:55:54","modified_gmt":"2026-06-22T10:55:54","slug":"interaction-between-music-and-theatre-in-identity-processes-croatian-example","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/www.critical-stages.org\/21\/interaction-between-music-and-theatre-in-identity-processes-croatian-example\/","title":{"rendered":"Interaction Between Music and Theatre in Identity Processes: Croatian Example"},"content":{"rendered":"\n

Iva Hraste<\/strong>–<\/strong>So\u010do<\/strong>*<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Abstract<\/strong><\/h5>\n\n\n\n

This paper seeks to explore the interaction of music and theatre, especially in the form of musical theatre, and how that interaction contributes to the processes of shaping the identity of a nation. To substantiate its thesis, the paper uses the example of creation of the Croatian national opera at the end of the nineteenth century, and how it was used in order to reinforce ideas of the cultural character of the nation.
Keywords: <\/strong>national identity, <\/strong>Croatian National Opera, Ivan Zajc, Croatian National Revival, Love and Malice<\/font><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The aim of this article is a) to show how the interaction of music and theatre can have significant consequences in relation to the shaping of national identity, and b) how the ideas of specificity and authenticity within a national musical idiom can play an important part in the process of creating a national cultural identity.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

This paper takes the example of the Croatian National Theatre in Zagreb in the second half of the nineteenth century, examining how it was used as a platform for awakening national consciousness and contributing to the idea that theatre has an important role to play in the development and preservation of national culture and identity.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

National identity is a unifying term in the sense of summarizing the different identities that make up a nation, often founded on myths and legends transposed into collective memory. Jordan Jeli\u0107 believes that the sense of belonging corresponds to the historical efforts made by individual nations in the process of homogenization within certain territorial units (42\u201344).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Bo\u017eo Skoko points out that the notion of national identity, or the identity of a nation state, is the personality and recognition of a state or an individual people within the diversity of the international community; in other words, what sets them apart and distinguishes them from other states or peoples and what makes them recognizable in the world in the long term (39).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

In this process, the cultural identity of a nation plays a particularly important role in rendering possible the definition of recognition in a global environment. Culture is inseparable from identity and can be defined as an external expression of identity. A characteristic of a nation’s cultural identity is its insusceptibility to being copied; that is, its distinctiveness in relation to the cultures of other countries.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

The acceptability of a nation\u2019s labels of a cultural identity within the international community is an important determinant in the process of creating a national identity. Marion Knapp underlines that national cultures create identities while producing the meaning of a nation we can identify with. National culture cannot be regarded as homogeneous, but as a dialectical process in which differences present themselves as a whole (41). It is particularly important to highlight the changeability of any given national identity, especially in its cultural dimension which is caused by dialectical social processes as well as influences from a wider environment.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Music has, from the time of the primordial community to contemporary society, mediated the construction of social identity. The musical expressions of the members of a society testified to its diversity and encouraged the homogenization of the community in a holistic sense. As stated earlier, authenticity is one of the basic concepts used to bring about the recognition and diversity of an identity in relation to the others. It can be seen as a presumed quality that exists in a specific cultural context (Hraste-So\u010do 27).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

The identity traits of musical idioms of a nation are used in self-recognition of a nation; that is, identification with characteristic traits that evoke a sense of belonging to a nation. Martin Stokes underscores that “places” built through music include a sense of diversity and social boundaries. He points out that relocation processes involve places, boundaries and identities of great collective importance; for example, the evocations of “places” in Irish ballads which can often be heard in Irish bars in England and the U.S.A. (3). John Baily points out that music contains characteristics of strong identity expression: due to its strong emotional component, it can act as a tool both in identifying different ethnic or social groups and in the processes of emphasizing and defining identity (Baily 48; Hraste-So\u010do 33\u201334).<\/p>\n\n\n

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Croatian National Theatre in Zagreb. Photo: Courtesy of the Croatian National Theatre in Zagreb<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n\n\n

For centuries, the field of theatrical art has possessed the characteristics of factors in identity processes. Ever since the Classical Antiquity, through medieval ecclesiastical performances to theatres of totalitarian regimes of modern times, theatre has served politics in the capacity of legitimizing power. The very presence of a large number of participants and audiences\u2014for example, in plays of the Classical Antiquity\u2014reflects the ability to create a sense of community and influence creation or recreation of national identity (Luki\u0107 117). Anne-Marie Autissier concludes that, as in many other countries, the awakening of national awareness began in Germany in the nineteenth century, and she points out that, according to the European tendency, political and social events gave birth to artistic and national ambitions (24).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Nadine Holdsworth highlights the example of the Tajik theatre in the Soviet Union: \u201cTheatre functioned as part of civic nationalism to convey the interests of the state. In post-Soviet Tajikistan there has been a concerted campaign to revive a submerged ethno-national identity through a rejection of the previous state-imposed, Russian-influenced theatre in favour of a new, hybrid form of theatre deeply rooted in what is claimed to be an authentic Persian-Tajik tradition and its cultural heritage of music, dance and poetry\u201d (80\u201381). The example above clearly illustrates how theatre art can be a factor in identity processes.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Throughout history, theatre has often been used as a platform to awaken national consciousness. As Holdsworth puts it: \u201cTheatre has the potential not just to reflect what is happening in a nation at any given time but, via its discursive, imaginative and communal realm, to contribute to the creation of the nation through the cultural discourses it ignites, the representations it offers and the stories it chooses to tell\u201d (80\u201381). An illustrative example of such processes will be shown in the case of Croatian theatre.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

The awakening of national sentiment in Croatia is linked to the Croatian National Revival; that is, the Illyrian Movement, a period when efforts were made, especially by the affirmation of the Croatian language, to stimulate the awakening of national consciousness among members of the Croatian people in the then-Habsburg Empire. In the process of national integration, the field of theatre arts played a major role. As Nikola Batu\u0161i\u0107 points out: \u201cThe New bourgeoisie, who began to gather around the Illyrian program, . . . became the basis for overall revival aspirations, among which theatre, quite understandably, occupied a significant place\u201d (Povijest<\/em> 208). Batu\u0161i\u0107 underlines that in this period Croatian theatre became, for the first time, an integral part of cultural politics (Hrvatsko <\/em>27).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Theatres of national importance also required a certain type of repertoire that would serve a cultural and political purpose. This is confirmed by Boris Senker who argues that \u201c. . . theatre, first of all, had to strive towards ensuring that the repertoire and artistic level of the performances did not lag behind the analogue institutions in other \u2018educated\u2019 peoples. It was required to raise awareness nationally, encourage politically and enlighten its audience culturally\u201d (67).<\/p>\n\n\n

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Croatian National Theatre in Zagreb. Photo: Courtesy of the Croatian National Theatre in Zagreb<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n\n\n

The Croatian Theatre Day is traditionally celebrated on November 24 to mark the day when the actor Vilim Lesi\u0107, during the period of heated national emotions in 1860, announced during the performance that, from the next day on, performances on Zagreb stage would only be held in the Croatian language. The processes that began much earlier made such a proclamation possible. As early as February 7, 1835, during the performance of Die Magdalenen Grotte bei Ogulin,<\/em> Ljudevit Gaj’s budnica<\/em>[[1]<\/a>]<\/sup> \u201cHorvat’s unity and union\u201d was performed, which was subsequently proclaimed an Illyrian hymn (Batu\u0161i\u0107, Povijest<\/em> 229).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

The so-called Illyrian Reading Room, which was focused on establishing a national theatre, went a step further, enabling the printing of Kukuljevic’s play Juran and Sofija or the Turks near Sisak<\/em>, in 1839; it was performed by the National Theatre Society on June 10, 1840. Batu\u0161i\u0107 points out that \u201c. . . that day is considered the birthday of the modern Croatian theatre because on that day not only was the first dramatic text of recent Croatian dramatic literature shown in the public theatre, but also the members of a professional acting group, who had all the prerogatives and characteristics of a national theatre, performed on public stage in \u0161tokavski<\/em> dialect\u201d (Povijest<\/em> 232). It is clear, therefore, that in the Croatian case, theatre was used to manifest and multiply the national feeling in the process of attempting to separate the identity from the then-state structure.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

It is important to note that it was precisely the field of theatrical art that the legislator wanted to codify. This is also due to the suitability of the theatrical art for the development of the national feeling in a direction that was desirable to governing structures. Thus, on August 25, 1861, the Croatian Parliament adopted (although it was never endorsed by the central government) the article LXXVII, \u201cA statutory article on the staff reorganization of the national theatre,\u201d which classified the theatre in St. Mark\u2019s Square in Zagreb as a national institution (Povijest <\/em>241). Almost 130 years later, and after Croatia gained independence from Yugoslavia, the Law on Theatres was passed (November 1991) as one of the first regulations of the new state. This Law defined theatre as a part of cultural and artistic national value (\u201cLaw on Theatres\u201d).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

It is clear that the interest in theatre activity did not arise solely from concerns for artistic improvement and development, but also from cultural and political imperatives related to ideas of national identity creation. This is also confirmed by Nadine Holdsworth: \u201cTheatre is deeply implicated in constructing the nation through the imaginative realm and providing a site where the nation can be put under the microscope\u201d (6).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

The concept of a national theatre emerged in Europe in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries as a result of the desire of rulers to communicate their political messages with the aim of maintaining power. Wilmer highlights the Com\u00e9die Fran\u00e7aise as the \u201cgrandaddy of European monarchial theatres.\u201d It would be followed by the Vienna Burgtheater, the Royal Theatre in Copenhagen and, briefly, the Hamburg National Theatre. Holdsworth emphasizes the theories of Rousseau and, in particular, Schiller that theatre can represent, not only the nation, but also be a vital tool of nation building. She quotes Schiller’s thesis:<\/p>\n\n\n\n

If in all our plays there was one main stream, if our poets reached an agreement and created a firm union for this final purpose\u2014if a strict selection led their work and their brushes dedicated themselves only to national matters\u2014in one word, if we had a national stage, we would also become a nation. (28\u201329)<\/p>\n\n\n\n

It is interesting, given the relatively small Croatian territory, that there was an aspiration for the establishment of a Croatian national theatre, in addition to the previously mentioned larger theatre centres and theatres in Slavic countries. Batu\u0161i\u0107 confirms the thesis of the possibility of affirmation of national identity through the theatrical and musical arts, saying, \u201cSeeking their statehood, that is, fighting for it within the framework of Austria-Hungary or earlier Austria, those in the grand, visionary, but also difficult to achieve plans of their revivalists in the mid-19th century, bestow the theatre with the aureole of a national temple\u201d (Povijest <\/em>239).<\/p>\n\n\n

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Croatian National Theatre in Zagreb. Photo: Courtesy of the Croatian National Theatre in Zagreb<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n\n\n

It is precisely in the countries that were part of the Habsburg Empire that there is a strong sense of a need for distinction and political independence that could not, in that period, be achieved through political means. Philippe Ther points out that the development of culture and cultural institutions served as a substitute for political expression where nation building was concerned (49). This is illustrated by the example of the Czech National Theatre, through which an attempt was made to emancipate Czech culture from German culture; this was part of the Czech national movement, which aspired to international recognition of Czech national identity. The initiatives in the Czech theatre had a direct impact on the Croatian one and on June 30, 1881, the decision was made to construct a (new) building of the Croatian National Theatre; the Czech influence was strongly felt both in organisational and artistic terms.<\/p>\n\n\n

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Croatian National Theatre in Zagreb. Photo: Courtesy of the Croatian National Theatre in Zagreb<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n\n\n

Musical theatre played an important role in the emergence of the Croatian national theatre, not only for artistic reasons, but also because of the lack of dramatic works written in the Croatian language. Also, the shortage of experience in the field of musical theatre felt like an impediment to the establishment of a permanent opera ensemble within the Croatian National Theatre.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

The Croatian National Revival period has often been described as very important in the history of Croatian music in terms of the authenticity of the national musical idiom. The first Croatian opera, Love and Malice <\/em>by Vatroslav Lisinski (the libretto of which was reworked by the champion of the Illyrian Movement Dimitrija Demeter), was performed to great success on March 28, 1846, in Zagreb and, according to Vjera Katalini\u0107, recognized as a national opera for its libretto and its Croatian language. It influenced the beginning of the national theatre (141\u201348).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Video 1<\/h6>\n\n\n\n
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